The canoe is one of the oldest forms of transportation, probably second only to the raft. Dugout canoes were being manufactured at least 8,000 years ago. But lighter, more maneuverable canoes were developed much more recently in North America by covering a frame with animal skins, fabric, or bark.


The birchbark canoe used by Native Americans was adopted by French explorers and fur traders during the 17th century. Despite its frail appearance, it's a very strong, durable craft. Its shallow draft will carry through white-water rapids that would demolish most boats, and it can be easily portaged around totally impassable rapids or across stretches of land from one body of water to another.


The Eskimo kayak, which has a partly enclosed deck with openings for the paddlers' seats, was discovered by Europeans somewhat later. While the canoeist uses a single-bladed paddle that's similar to the oar used in rowing, the kayak paddle has a blade on each end and is gripped in the middle.


A Scottish lawyer, John MacGregor, was chiefly responsible for establishing canoeing as a recreational sport. In 1845, he designed a type of canoe, the Rob Roy, which had a deck and was equipped with a mast and sail as well as paddles. MacGregor went on a whole series of cruises in Europe and the Holy Land beginning in 1849, and he wrote books and delivered many lectures about his trips.


MacGregor and other enthusiasts in 1866 founded the Canoe Club, which became the Royal Canoe Club in 1873. Competitive canoeing began with the club's first regatta in 1867.
The New York Canoe Club was founded in 1871 and was quickly followed by many similar organizations on the East Coast. They organized the American Canoe Association (ACA) in 1880. The Canadian Canoe Association was founded in 1900.


During the early part of the century, canoeing became quite popular in northern and central Europe. Largely through the efforts of Waldemar Van B. Claussen of the ACA, representatives of 19 national clubs met in Copenhagen in 1924 to establish the Internationale Representationschaft des Kanusport (IRK).


Also in 1924, canoeing was a demonstration sport at the Paris Olympics. The United States swept the kayak events, while Canada won all four canoeing events. The IRK's attempt to make canoeing a full-fledged Olympic sport didn't succeed, however, until 1936.


There were eight events on the 1936 program: Single and pairs canoes at 1,000 meters; single and pairs kayaks at 1,000 and 10,000 meters; and single and pairs folding canoes at 1,000 meters.


That was the last Olympics before World War II, in which the IRK headquarters in Munich was destroyed by Allied bombs. However, the IRK was re-organized as the International Canoe Federation in 1946 and, when the Olympics resumed in 1948, canoeing was again on the program. The folding canoe events were dropped and the first women's event, the 500-meter singles kayak, was added.


After the war, white-water canoeing rapidly gained popularity in Central Europe. Originally run through a short stretch of natural rapids, white-water races now take place on artificial rapids. As in Alpine skiing, racers compete in individual time trials.


In white-water slalom races, the canoe must pass through a series of gates, including some reverse gates that have to be passed while paddling backward. Penalty time is assessed for hitting one pole, both poles, or for missing a gate entirely. This penalty time is then added to the canoeist's actual time to determine the order of finish.


White-water racing was on the Olympic program in 1972. It was dropped after those games, but was restored to the program in 1992.


Olympic races are referred to by a simple code in which the initial letter is K for kayak or C for Canadian canoe and the number refers to the number of paddlers. For example, C-1 means canoe singles and K-2 means kayak pairs.


In flat-water events, men compete in C-1, C-2, K-1 and K-2 races at 500 and 1,000 meters and in K-4 races at 1,000 meters only. Women compete only in K-1, K-2, and K4, all at the 500-meter distance.


The Olympic white-water slalom events are for the men's C-1, C-2, and K-1 and the women's K-1. There's no standard distance for white-water races, since each course is laid out differently.


In addition to the Olympic events, there are several major long-distance canoe races. Among the best-known are the Sella Descent in northern Spain, a 16-5 kilometer (about 10-mile) race established in 1931; the Liffey Descent, a 28.2-kilometer (17.5-mile) race conducted in Ireland since 1959; and International White-Water race, established in 1948 and conducted on a 23-mile downriver course at Salida, Colorado.


The U. S. Canoe Association was founded in 1968 to govern and sanction marathon racing. Olympic competition is governed by the U. S. Canoe-Kayak Team. The American Canoe Association now operates primarily as an organization of clubs involved in recreational canoeing, which was always its primary interest.


Competition in sailing canoes was popular in the late 19th century. While some sailing races are still conducted by canoe clubs, most such races are now run under the auspices of yachting clubs. One of the first important international yachting trophies, the Seawanhaka International Challenge Cup, was established in 1895 for sailing canoes.